AP Euronpean Renaissance Political/Economical Notes

Here are Mr.M’s notes on…
AP European Renaissance Political/Economics Powerpoint Notes:
 
The Prince
Nicolo Machiavelli
 
Printing Press—->spread ideas fast—>change—>Reformation–>Nationalism–>Imperialism—>
Globalization
 
subsistence economy=Feudalism
 
Trade Fairs
 
1000 CE incr. trade–Why?
1.  improved agric. techniques—>increased food production  (hoe holing husbandry, fallow field, etc.)
2.  rise in pop—>towns and cities grew
3.  new trade routes—> Crusades, Marco Polo, Baltic Sea
4.  improved transportation—> esp. shipbuilding
5.  currency $ replaces barter–> hurries rise of new middle class merchants, bankers, accountants
     artisans, tradespeople, shopkeepers living in cities.
 
Bourgeoisie
 
POLITICS in N. Italy–250 small states
communes—association of local merchants and guilds who took care of city services, building
                  walls, civil order
local nobles move into cities
Merchant  +  Nobility   HOW?
 
New urban elite
Politics=VIOLENT  Why?
citizenship based on holding property, thus many artisans and lesser merchants had NO power
because….
They also suffered tax burden
 
Popolo
Republican govt. developed as people challenged elites—Republican govts. failed because new
republican leaders did NOT give rights, power to groups that helped them rise to power
No Civil Order—>rise of dictators, oligarchies
 
condottieri
 
City State  “ITALIAN INTRIGUE”
April Blood:  Florence and the Plot Against the Medici, Lauro Martines, c. 2003
Florence, Venice, Papal States, Milan, Naples
 
MILAN
N. Italy
richest Italian city state.  Why?  Location, trade routes, effective tax system
 
Visconti 1300’s
 
Milan vs. Florence rivalry
 
1450-1535 Sforza
Ludovico Sforza was condottieri leader for Visconti in Milan
 
Venice Milan War  (Naples and Venice vs. Milan and Florence)
 
Cosimo de Medici–Florence
Peace of Lodi 1454–40 Year Peace
 
Ludovico Sforza 1451-1508  Milanese leader
opulent court–Renaissance style
da Vince
Donato Bramante
Ludovico “The Moor” Sforza helped Charles VIII of France invade Naples
 
Louis XII (replaced Ch. VIII) forced Ludovico out of Milan—replaced by son Francesco II Sforza
 
VENICE
Adriatic Sea
Special trade privileges with Germany and Byzantines
 
1200’s 4th crusade–will win trade concessions after Venice and French knights take
city, kill Jews, etc…strip wealth from Constantinople
Constantinople and Byzantine Empire will not recover–weakened and then falls to Ottoman
Turks in 1453
 
Doge
Merchant Oligarchy–200 families Great Council ran Venice (Doge a figurehead)
strong navy
 
Venice-Genoa Wars
2 trade route maps in powerpoint
 
1300’s–Venice wins trade route wars 1381 and dominates 1400’s
 
Milan-Venice rivalry 1400’s  and Venetian vs. Ottoman rivalry and wars through 1500’s
(But, new trade system after 1492–Atlantic Trade Route and African route to Indies)
 
FLORENCE
 
banking and manufacturing of textiles
best woolen cloth in Europe  (Netherlands will challenge later)
Vatican as financial $ partner
gold florin
Commune–>Republic–> Oligarchy
 
Medici
1.  Cosimo de Medici 1434-1464
    Cosimo was “behind the scenes” power figure–Why?
    Florence “image” was as a Republic, so dominant dictator or Doge or Medici oligarchy not
   good idea.
   Cosimo held NO formal title, lived frugally, NOT extravagant, did not flaunt power publicly
   patron of the arts–
 
Donatello
Fra Angelico
Brunelleschi’s “Dome on Cathedral of Florence”
1st Public Library at monastery of San Marco
 
2.  Lorenzo–grandson 1469 took over at 20 yrs. of age
    same “style” as Cosimo, POET, popular with the popolo
 
1478 Pazzi conspiracy–Pope Sixtus IV interested in securing titles and power for his nephews
Girolamo Riaro
 
Allied with Salviati families (rival bankers)
April Blook–April 26, 1478  “HIT” on Medicis-Lorenzo wounded survives, his brother killed…
 
Popolo (crowd in Florence) reaction?  found conspirators and killed them…
 
Pope turned to Naples to punish Lorenzo and Florence
Why would Florence use “DAVID” sculptures and art as symbol of their city-state?
 
Lorenzo gambles, travels to Naples to negotiate 1480 peace..
 
SAVONAROLA
Dominican monk 1490’s in Florence
San Marco Monastery
Medieval Man and Fundamentalist
Rages against Florence Renaissance “style” and immorality, sinfulness, Medici corruption,
extravagence, “pagan” secular art
 
Some Florentines tired of Medici rule (60 years)
 
1492–ooh! Lorenzo the Magnificent dies leaving power to son Piero
 
Piero NOT Cosimo or Lorenzo
 
French Charles VIII 1494 invades Florence
Florentine citizens drive Medici out of Florence
 
New Republic with Savonarola’s religious fundamentalism as rules, laws
Religious Police
1497 Bonfire of the Vanities in Piazza della Signoria
 
Pope Alexander VI and Augustinian monks uncomfortable with Savonarola’s Dominican fundamentalism
 
Savonarola refused to take orders from Pope
excommunicated April 1498
 
Florence and Franciscan monks (Pope’s guys) attacked Savonarola at San Marco-
street fight with bow and arrows
 
hanged him and burned body…
 
ROME and PAPAL STATES  S14
 
Avignon 1300’s
Pope trying to be King of Italy.   Evidence:
1400’s more secular Ren. Popes
all that interior design and decoration in Rome–statues, art.  Rome to
be center of a nationalist Italy led by Pope….If he was still Pope of all
Catholics he would not have spent all that annate tax $ on Rome, but spread
it around Europe.
 
S15  POPES and ART
1st Ren. Pope=Nicholas V  1447-55
Vatican Library
Sixtus !V=1471-84
Sistine Chapel
Sistine Bridge over Tiber River.  Vatican now connected to Rome main city…
Pope Julius II 1503-1513
ST. Peter’s Basilica
architect Bramante, painter Raphael, Michelangelo (Sistine ceiling)
 
Papal intrigue:
Colonnas, Orsinis, della Roveres
Borgias
 
Pope Sixtus !V 1471-84 was a member of della Rovere family
Nepotism, ie., placing his “nephews” (really his sons) in positions of power.
 
1478 Pazzi Conspiracy–Why?  Pope Sixtus wanted his “nephew” in control. Note earlier notes.
1481 Venice attack on little Ferrara city state—Why? another “nephew” to put in control
of Ferrara.  FAILED.
 
S17 Pope Alexander VI 1492-1503 was Rodrigo Borgia
corrupt, mistresses
His son Cesare in charge of Papal Armies S18
S19 Juliusd II 1503-1513
was a della Rovere who had ousted rival Borgias
Warrior Pope  (Nephew of Sixtus IV)
expanded and restored Papal Territory in central Italy.
VISION=KING of Italy!!!
S20 Cesare Borgia 1475-1507  illegitimate bastard son of Pope Alexander VI
also sister Borgia involved in intrigues.
Romagna
 
1502 Condottieri Plot
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitellozzo_Vitelli
Niccolo Machiavelli–Cesare Borgia viewed as ideal nationalist “Prince”
Alexander died, Julius II stripped Cesare of power and imprisoned him
Cesare exiled, died as mercenary soldier in battle
 
S21  NAPLES
Kingdom–NOT a republic or oligarchy
Vassal state of Rome
More Feudal
King Alfonso 1396-1458
King Ferdinand I aka. Ferrante 1458-1494
Southern Italy–NO dominant merchant class
Fr-Spain claimed southern Italy   WHY?
 
1282-1450? France held Naples
Spain held Sicily
1442 Alfonso=conquered Naples.  He was member of Spanish royal Kingdom of Aragon
 
Alfonso was devotee of Greco-Roman writings–”classics”
 
Ferdinand I 1458 was son of Alfonso
Medici Florentine war with Sixtus XI 1478–remember, Sixtus wanted “nephews” in power
Naples sided with Sixtus XI
Ferdinand was tyrant
1485 nobles revolted, but Ferdinand (Ferrante) able to crush them
 
S22 Exploration and Trade

Marco Polo–Venetian
Silk Road
The Travels
 
Portuguese 1215 Diego Cao-African coast–Niger River mouth
1420’s W. Coast of Africa–Ghana gold
Gold Coast
1492 Columbus for Spain
1498 Vasco da Gama-Portuguese sailed around southern tip of Africa to Calicut, India
and monopoly of Indian Ocean spices..Remember Italians (Venetians) cut off by Ottomans
after 1453 collapse of Constantinople (Byzantine empire ended)
Columbus opens Far East Trade to New world, ie. The Americas. 
1494 Treaty of Tordesillas
http://www.zum.de/whkmla/period/disc/tordesillas.html
 
S23 Black Death 1347
Renaissance was economic recovery from plague
 
S24  Patronage
Social competition of rich-
Types
rationale?
 
S25
Intellectual Basis of Renaissance
Humanism
Greco-Roman values
Revival of Antiquity—>Greco-Roman education, grammar, poetry, history=classical educ.
Individualism
Celebration of Humanity
secular-worldly focus–Christianity is OK, but so is human life, body, etc.
 
Human body=beautiful as in Greco-Roman times
to be celebrated not viewed as “sinful”
Humanists wanted to expand Christianity beyond sin and redemption
to include all human experience
 
 
led to conflict with Catholic Church
 
S27  Castiglione
The Courtier
Sprezzatura 
ease, effortless—”cool”
 
Women—>Chivalry POV  vs.  Castiglione POV
 
S28  Women
 
Social models=women=”trophy wife”
men=political leaders
 
Isabella d’Este 1474-1539
Mantua
 
S28  Isabella d’Este ruled 3 yrs. after husband taken prisoner
husband died 1519–She continue to rule as regent and then counselor to son
Patron of Raphael
 
Caterina Sforza 1463-1509
Countess of Forli (central Itay)
husband murdered in 1488, she ruled to 1500.  Cesare Borgia conquered Forli
 
S29  Italian Wars
 
1494-1559–internal conflicts between city states AND external involving France,
Spain, HRE (Germany)
Here war brings Southern Renaissance (Italian) along trade routes North into Western
Europe.
 
S30  Charles VIII of France (1470-1498)
 
France and Spain both claimed S. Italy because they had been rulers of Naples.
1490’s Ludovico Sforza (Milan) called in France (Ch. VIII) to claim Naples whiched
threatened Milan.  1494
Ch. VIII eagerly entered Italy with an army and forced Florence and Papal States to
surrender.  1495 Ch. VIII crowned King of Naples…this shook up rest of Italy..
 
1495 League of Venice formed  (Spain, HRE, Papal States–Pope Alexander VI, Milan and
Venice in alliance against Charles VIII)   Note even Milan joins feeling threatened by
French power!!!
Battle of Fornovo saw Ch. VIII defeated
 
S31 Louis XII 1462-1515  Invaded Italy in 1499 taking Milan, Genoa and split Naples with Ferdinand
of Spain, yes that Ferdinand who married Isabella united Spain against the Moors then sent
Columbus on Voyage to the Indies in 1492.
http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/louis12.htm
 
Treaty of Blois 1504-1505
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blois
Spain turned on France–L. XII forced to give up Naples claim
 
S32  Pope Julius II–Italian Wars continued.
Borgias kicked out with Pope Alexander VI died in 1503
Romagna, which is central Italy annexed by Venice.
Julius II demanded Romagna returned to Papal States
Venice says NO!!!!!!
1508 Julius II turns to Emperor Maximilian I of Holy Roman Empire
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_I%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
Attacks fail…
Max I and Pope Julius II turned to France  Louis XII for help…
League of Cambrai–motive?
1.  defeat Venice
2.  divide Venetian territories for themselves
Battle of Agnadello 1509–Venice loses–sues for peaces with Pope Julius
 
France continued war–Julius now allied with Venice 1510….Why?
fear of France turning on Papal States…if they gain territory in Italy.
Julius recruited Spain and HRE to a “Holy League” in 1511-Battles in N. Italy 3 yrs.
Venice left League and joined France 1513–Are you starting to understand
“Italian Intrigue???”
Battle of Marignano 1515–French win!!
Julius II and Louis XII dead—Treaty of Noyon ended fighting.
French controlled Milan and Venice gained land…
 
S33  HRE Charles V (1500-1558)  Universal Monarch—one of most powerful European
rulers EVER.  WHY?
1.  Grandson of Ferdinand of Spain (Columbus, remember?) and Maximilian I of HRE
thus, he ruled Spain, American colonies, and all of Germany—Wowzer, bowzer!!:)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V%2C_Holy_Roman_Emperor
Note Habsburg chin…..
 
Ferdinand died in 1516-Ch. V King of Spain and HRE Emperor after Max. I died in 1519…
and with American silver and gold from Potosi, Bolivia silver mines—a Universal monarch.
Habsburg
Charles V war to take Milan from France….Ch. V viewed himself as Warrior of the Pope…
Protector of Pope
Battle of Pavia 1525–Charles V defeats French and captured French King Francis I.
Francis I gave up all of French claims in Italy and Burgundy (Netherlands) to Holy Roman
Empire and Charles V!!!
MORE power to Charles V!!!
Francis I released, reneged, recruited Pope Clement VII, Henry VIII of England (famous
wrestling match between the two men-Francis I won!!), Venice, Florence against Charles V.
Why would these powers joing France?
Fear of Habsburg domination of all of Italy…..Universal Monarchy”
Papal States had traditional ties to HRE and thus, Charles V….
For siding with Charles V, French troops sack Rome in 1527..
 
But, Charles V wins-1529 Francis I forced, again, to give up French claims in Italy!!!
 
1540’s-1550’s France started 2 more wars trying to get back Italy—-FAILED…
of course, note Reformation in swing and Ottomans advancing on Europe….
1520’s Ottoman attacks had saved Martin Luther from death as Charles V had to focus
on European battles and the Ottomans and not killing the German monk, heretic….
 
1559  Peace—France, again, renounced all claims in Italy–Ending Italian WARS!!!!whew..
 
S34 N. Renaissance
 
Compare and Contrast Italian Renaissance with N. Renaissance
1. N more religious
2.  North Ren. began late 1490’s early 1500’s—effect on Reformation?
 
S35  Printing Press
Johann Gutenerg 1454?–Germanyh
Effect?
1.  Printed books cheaper–books, handbills, woodcut art easier to print and distribute…
2.  more available
3.  increased literacy
4.  new ideas spread faster, technology, Reformation
 
**Printing press replaced ILLUMINATION or writing copies by hand…Many monks in
monasteries lost jobs to machine, ie., printing press.
In Paris, the King and Church actually arrested a printing press and put it in chains
and under a tarp….
 
S36  Christian Humanism-N. Europe (Western Europe)
classical Greco Roman ideals + Christianity
AND desire to reform Church…Pope nervous…
Goal:  Lead a pious and “good life.”
Dutch Desiderius ERASMUS 1466-1536
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus
caustic satirical attack on Catholic Church –In Praise of Folly
Aim:  clean up Renaissance Popes immorality and lewd behavior—reform not REPLACE Catholic
Church…
Study of Greek and Hebrew—Why?   To study primary sources of older, oriignal Bible
Erasmus produced “modernized” Greek and Latin translations of New Testament
 
Jan van Eyck
Albrecht Durer
Pieter Brueghel
Hans Holbein the Younger
 
S37  Renaissance Political and Economic Legacy—
Merchant power
printing press–incr. information—marketing tool to help capitalism
 
NEW IDEAS—> CHANGE—>REFORMATION and Luther—->NATIONALISM (is more important
to be English or Christian???—–>Imperialism  (if my country is so Exceptional why not
expand our ideas and power to others???—–>Globalization  (capitalism everywhere, er.,
controlled by nationalistic superpowers????

Chapter 15 Summary

 

 

 

Chapter 15

The Struggle for Reformation Europe

 

A New Heaven and a New Earth
As the sixteenth century began, there was a predominant atmosphere of anxiety in Europe. The advance of Muslim Turks on Europe while Christian princes fought among themselves led many to believe that the Last Judgment was about to arrive. Consequently, many people intensified their search for religious comfort while intellectuals criticized the leadership of the church for failing to meet the needs of the people.

The Crisis of Faith, pp.548-549
Some of the signs of mounting spiritual anxiety among the laity included the steady increase in the number of pilgrimages, the dedication of new shrines, and the brisk sale of prayer books in both Latin and the vernacular. Yet in this time of anxiety, the clergy seemed increasingly incapable of meeting the spiritual needs of the people. Clerical privileges and deficiencies in their education or behavior sometimes offended the sensibilities of laypeople who yearned for a religion that fit their daily needs and for earnest, moral priests and edifying sermons. In addition, the church often placed more importance on external behavior than spiritual intent, and set forth numerous regulations to define sinful behavior. In the sacrament of penance, Christians confessed their sins to a priest in order to receive forgiveness. Yet confession did not always ease anxiety about salvation and, worse still, some priests demanded money or sexual favors in return for forgiveness. Although a sincere confession saved a sinner from hell, sinners still faced purgatory after death and, to shorten time spent in purgatory, a person could earn an indulgence by performing specific religious tasks. The church also sold indulgences, which suggested more interest in making money than saving souls. Dissatisfaction with the church’s rules prompted several early reform attempts by bishops and leading clerics, but such movements were limited to individual monastic houses or dioceses.

Christian Humanism, pp. 550-552
Through scholarship and social reform, Christian humanists sought to adapt the ethical ideals of classical antiquity to a Christian society. Christian humanists like Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466–1536) and Thomas More (1478–1535) emphasized Christian piety as defining true virtue. Erasmus used his sharp wit to criticize the corruption of the clergy and the bloody ambitions of the Christian princes. Erasmus believed that education could reform individuals and society. He dreamed of a unified, peaceful Christendom where learning would eclipse ignorance and charity, and good works would be valued over religious ceremonies devoid of meaning. In his Handbook of the Militant Christian (1503) and The Praise of Folly (1509), Erasmus satirized his contemporaries’ love of power and wealth. A man of peace, Erasmus chose Christian unity over division as the Reformation swept Europe. He pleased neither the Protestants nor the Catholics entirely and ended his career isolated from both. Thomas More, to whom Erasmus dedicated The Praise of Folly, was a lawyer and served as a member of Parliament and ambassador. In 1529, More became Henry VIII’s lord chancellor, but he retired in 1532 in protest of Henry VIII’s control of the clergy. More’s best-known work, Utopia (1516), was inspired by the voyages of discovery. Describing an imaginary land, the book was a critique of his own society. The inhabitants of Utopia are equally dedicated to hard work and education, and do not suffer from crime, starvation, or poverty. More believed that politics, property, and war created human misery.

 

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Protestant Reformers
Out of the predominant atmosphere of spiritual need and resentment grew a movement of explosive protests and reform. Martin Luther began the reform movement in Germany, while Huldrych Zwingli extended the Reformation to Switzerland. A generation later, John Calvin began another reform movement that extended throughout Europe.

Martin Luther and the German Nation, pp. 552–555
Martin Luther, a young German friar tormented by his own religious anxieties, triggered the first major religious reform. After abandoning the law for a monastery, Luther found little consolation in the sacraments. His sense of sinfulness and fear of damnation despite frequent penance deepened his unease with the church. Sent to study theology, Luther experienced grace and insight into salvation, realizing that faith alone saved him from sin. While teaching at the University of Wittenberg, Luther became disgusted when the archbishop of Mainz commissioned the sale of indulgences to raise money for building St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome and to cover the expense of getting elected archbishop. In 1517, Luther posted ninety-five theses—propositions for academic debate—that questioned the sale of indulgences and church offices. Printed and spread rapidly, Luther’s theses released a torrent of pent-up resentment among the laity, many of whom shared Luther’s position. In Freedom of a Christian, Luther distinguished between teachings from the Gospels and invented church doctrines and laws, arguing that faith could be developed “by Scripture alone.” He further argued that sinners were saved “by faith alone” rather than by good works. Finally, he argued that a “priesthood of all believers” should replace professional clerics. In To the Nobility of the German Nation, Luther appealed to nationalism, calling on German princes to defend their nation from corrupt Romans. In On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, he condemned the papacy as the Antichrist. The church misjudged Luther’s influence when they ordered him to keep quiet. In 1521, Luther defended his faith before Charles V (r. 1520–1558) at the Imperial Diet of Worms, but was spared from the potential consequences of his actions because he enjoyed the protection of Frederick the Wise, the elector of Saxony. The early Reformation was essentially an urban movement, and anti-Roman evangelicals included German princes, city officials, professors, priests, and laypeople.

Huldrych Zwingli and the Swiss Confederation, pp. 556–557
The poor, mountainous country of Switzerland’s chief source of income had been mercenary soldiers recruited for the papal, French, and imperial armies. In 1520, the chief preacher in Zurich, Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) criticized his superior, Cardinal Matthew Shinner, for sending the country’s young men off to be killed or maimed while serving in the papal armies. Zwingli developed a reform movement independent from that of Luther. Zwingli was deeply influenced by Erasmus’s ideas on education. He openly declared himself a reformer and attacked the corruption of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and church rules such as fasting and clerical celibacy. Under Zwingli’s leadership, Zurich became the center of the Swiss reform movement. Zwingli brought together religion, politics, and morality, drawing no distinction between the ideal citizen and the perfect Christian—a stance that differed from Luther’s position. The two also disagreed about the nature of the Eucharist. Luther believed that Christ was both truly and symbolically present in the bread and wine of this sacrament, whereas Zwingli believed that the Eucharist was only a symbol of Christ’s union with believers. Troubled by these theological differences, Evangelical princes and magistrates assembled the major reformers at Marburg in central Germany in 1529. Several days of intense discussions resolved some of the doctrinal differences, but Luther and Zwingli did not agree on the Eucharist; therefore, the German and Swiss movements continued along divergent paths.

John Calvin and Christian Discipline, pp. 557–559
John Calvin (1509–1564), a Frenchman who studied law, led another reform movement that took hold in France and Switzerland. Influenced by the humanists, Calvin gradually abandoned the Catholic church. The Reformation found many adherents in France, culminating in the Affair of the Placards in 1534 when church doors were posted with broadsheets denouncing the Mass. This affair provoked a national crackdown on Protestants, and Calvin fled abroad. He stopped in Geneva, which had renounced its allegiance to its Catholic bishop, and there took up leadership of the Genevan reform party with Guillaume Farel. After triumphing in 1541 over the old Genevan families who opposed his regime, Calvin made Geneva a tightly disciplined Christian republic. Calvin’s 1536 publication The Institutes of the Christian Religionmade him the first reformer to organize reformist doctrines, organization, history, and practices in a logical and systematic way. Calvin developed his own doctrine of predestination, according to which God had pre-destined every human to either salvation or damnation before the creation of the world. Fusing society and church into the “Reformed church,” Calvin and his followers created a community that some praised for its lack of crime and low illegitimate birthrate. Intolerant of dissenters and advocating rigorous discipline, Calvin made Geneva the new center of the Reformation, the city in which missionaries trained and from which books of Calvinist doctrine were exported. Calvin’s ideas spread throughout much of Europe and even to New England, the Reformed church becoming the prevailing form of Protestantism in many of these countries.

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Reshaping Society through Religion
The religious upheaval in the early years of the Reformation inspired many to challenge the social order in general. Radical movements such as the Anabaptists and the peasant rebels of the Holy Roman Empire challenged the foundations of the religious and political order. The brutal repression of these radicals ushered in a period of social disciplining as the subversive potential of religious reforms alarmed authorities.

Challenging the Social Order, pp. 559–561
The message of Christian freedom proclaimed by Luther resonated with the oppressed, and popular demand pressured many local officials to appoint new clerics committed to reform. In 1525, a weakened church authority encouraged many peasants who resented the church’s greed to rebel in a massive rural uprising in southern and central Germany that was brutally suppressed. Emerging as champions of an orderly religious reform, many German princes who had suppressed the peasant revolt confronted Emperor Charles V, who supported Rome. In 1529, Charles declared Catholicism the empire’s only legitimate faith. The Lutheran German princes protested and thus came to be called Protestants. In Zurich, while Zwingli was challenging the Roman church, some laypeople secretly pursued their own religious path. Believing that only adults possessed the reason and free will to choose Christ, these men and women believed the baptism of infants was invalid; they came to be called Anabaptists, meaning “those who were rebaptized.” Even though Zwingli condemned this movement, it spread quickly through southern Germany. One group of Anabaptists seized control of the city of Münster. They abolished private property in imitation of the early Christian church and dissolved traditional marriages, allowing men to have multiple wives. Besieged by a combined Protestant and Catholic army in 1535, the city fell and the leaders of the Anabaptists were killed. Yet the Anabaptist movement survived in northwestern Europe under the Dutch reformer Menno Simons (1469–1561).

New Forms of Discipline, pp. 561–565
A new urban, middle-class culture in Protestant Europe dramatically altered European civilization and continued trends toward change begun during the Middle Ages. The Latin Bible—the Vulgate—was the only Bible authorized by the Catholic church. As reformers turned to the Scriptures, vernacular translations of the Bible appeared, making it more accessible to the laity. In the Holy Roman Empire, Luther encouraged princes and magistrates to establish new schools to educate children in the knowledge and fear of God, and medieval church schools were replaced by a state school system intended to train obedient, pious, and hardworking Christian citizens. Secular governments also began to take over public charity. The new Protestant work ethic linked hard work and prosperity with piety and consequently equated laziness and poverty with a lack of moral worth. In Catholic lands, poverty was still considered a Christian virtue, and collective charity persisted, although in a more regulated form. Different educational systems and different attitudes toward the poor widened the gulf between Protestants and Catholics. Protestants, in their quest for order and discipline in worship and in society, reaffirmed the ideal of the patriarchal family.

 

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A Struggle for Mastery
The new patterns of conflict generated by the Reformation were superimposed on traditional dynastic strife. The ambitions of powerful princes combined with the passions of religious reformers fueled widespread violence that ultimately failed to settle religious differences. By 1560, an exhausted Europe found itself in a state of compromised peace that contained the seeds of future conflict.

The Court, p. 566
Throughout Europe, dynastic strife and religious zeal created political instability. A stabilizing center of the politics of dynasty and religion was the royal court, which was used to instill loyalty in nobles and awe in subjects. The court was the royal household, which included a community of servants, noble attendants, officials, artists, and soldiers. Court officials performed a myriad of other tasks. The French court of Francis I (r. 1515–1547) became the largest in Europe, numbering 1,622 members, excluding nonofficial courtiers. Courts were mobile at the time, and entourages of animals, people, furniture, and documents moved among a king’s many palaces. Hunting and other warlike recreations were a passion for the men of the court. The literature of the time reveals much about this court culture. Two writers, Ludovico Ariosto (1474–1533) and Baldassare Castiglione (1478–1529) composed works that glorified this extravagant court culture. Ariosto’s epic poem Orlando Furiosowas modeled after Greek and Roman poetry and portrayed court culture as the highest synthesis of Christian and classical values; it tells a tale of combat and valor in the tradition of the medieval chivalric romance. Castiglione’s equally popular The Courtier represented court culture as a perfect synthesis of military virtues and literary and artistic cultivation. In The Courtier, a man is defined in part by his service to his prince and his lady, but also by his outward appearance. The significance of proper clothing in court culture reflected the rigid distinctions between the classes and the sexes in sixteenth-century Europe.

Art and the Christian Knight, pp. 566–567
The idealized portraits, paintings, buildings, and other works commissioned by the Habsburg emperors and Catholic popes represented an undercurrent of hope and idealism in the charged atmosphere of the sixteenth century. Emperor Maximilian I (r. 1493–1519), for example, dreamed of restoring Christian chivalry and even hoped to rule as both emperor and pope. He appointed the Nuremburg artist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) as court painter. Dürer designed a triumphal carriage for the emperor that featured allegorical figures such as Prudence, Justice, Temperance, and Fortitude. For many Catholic artists and humanists, Emperor Charles V, Maximilian’s grandson, represented the ideal Christian knight. The Venetian painter Titian (1477–1576) painted four images from the emperor’s life: two portrayed the prince as victorious over Protestants, and one, Gloria, depicted the emperor in a white robe ascending to God amid a throng of the blessed. In Italy, Florentine artist Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564) matured his talents in the service of the powerful Medici family. He became the favorite artist of the warrior-pope Julius II, painting for him the walls and ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Later commissioned by Pope Paul III, he became the chief architect of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. The work of Michelangelo exemplified the transition from the Renaissance to the age of religious conflicts; Michelangelo’s creations glorified a papacy under siege, just as Titian’s paintings helped defend the Habsburg dynasty against infidels and heretics.

Wars among Habsburgs, Valois, and Ottomans, pp. 568–570
French claims to Italian lands triggered wars between France and Spain for control of the continent. The Italian Wars (1494–1559) between the French Valois dynasty, led by Francis I, and the Habsburg dynasty, led by Charles V, eventually involved most Christian monarchs and the Ottoman sultan. England, for instance, acted out of power considerations, first siding with France and then with Spain. The Italian states fought for their independence, the Protestant princes of Germany used the conflict as leverage to obtain privileges from the emperor, whereas the Ottoman Turks saw the conflict as an opportunity for territorial expansion. Under Sultan Suleiman, known as Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566), the Ottoman Empire reached the height of its power, defeating Christian forces in Hungary and laying siege to Vienna. Desperate to overcome the forces of Charles V, who had seized the French city of Nice and were campaigning to capture Tunis on the North African coast, Francis I formed an alliance with the Turks. The alliance between a Christian king and the Muslim sultan shocked many Christians and, although it was brief, the alliance demonstrated that religion was but one of many factors in power politics. Most battles between the Valois and Habsburgs were fought in Italy and the Low Countries. In 1525, the Spanish at Pavia captured Francis I. Francis was detained in Spain until he renounced his claims to Italy; but, he immediately resumed making these claims when he returned to France. In 1527, in retaliation for a papal alliance with France, Charles’s troops, many of whom were German Protestant mercenaries, sacked Rome. Protestants and Catholics alike saw this as a punishment from God, prompting the Catholic church to turn toward reform. The Italian Wars dragged on through the 1540s, ending only when the French king, too bankrupt to keep fighting, acknowledged defeat by signing the Treaty of Cambresis in 1559.

The Finance and Technologies of War, pp. 570–571
Western armies grew and armed themselves with new, more effective weapons. This trend was costly, as were new defensive measures. In England, war expenditures were more than double royal revenues in the 1540s. In response, the government devalued its coinage, which caused rapid inflation. Charles V boasted the largest army in Europe, but was sinking ever deeper into debt, as was his opponent Francis I. The European monarchs raised taxes, sold offices, and even confiscated property and goods to pay for their costly wars. When these efforts proved insufficient, both the Valois and Habsburg monarchs looked to their leading bankers for loans, but these loans carried high interest rates. The German Fugger Bank was the largest in sixteenth-century Europe. Begun by Jakob Fugger (1459–1525), it built an international financial empire that helped make kings. As personal banker to Charles’s grandfather (Maximilian I) and the Habsburg dynasty, the Fugger family reaped handsome profits from the war. In 1519, Fugger assembled a consortium to secure the election of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor, tightening the alliance between the bank and the imperial office. Between 1527 and 1547, the bank’s assets more than doubled, the majority being loans to the Habsburgs. Charles, however, barely managed to stay one step ahead of his creditors, and his successor in Spain eventually lost control of state finances. To service debts, European monarchs sought revenues in tax increases and wars. But paying for wars took yet more money and more loans. The cycle of war and debt continued for years, draining the French and Spanish treasuries and forcing the monarchs to end sixty years of warfare with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559.

Divided Realms, pp. 571–573
Throughout Europe, rulers viewed religious discord as a threat to the stability of their realms. In France, the Calvinist movement grew steadily despite a national crackdown on religious dissent in 1534, and some noble families became Huguenots, as French Protestants were called. Francis I and his successor Henry II maintained a balance between the Catholics and Huguenots but, after 1560, France plunged into decades of savage religious wars. English Protestants had been relatively few until the reign of Henry VIII (r. 1509–1547). When Pope Clement VII refused to grant the divorce Henry sought from Catherine of Aragon, the king broke away from Rome. The Act of Supremacy, passed by Parliament in 1529, made Henry the head of the Anglican Church (the Church of England). During the brief reigns of Edward VI (r. 1547–1553) and Mary (r. 1553–1558), official religious policies oscillated between Protestantism and Catholicism. Under Elizabeth I, Anglicanism was restored and came to define the English nation. In Scotland, as Protestantism gained adherents, powerful noble clans directly challenged the devoutly Catholic monarchy. In 1560, the Protestants seized control of the Scottish parliament and queen regent Mary of Guise (d. 1560), a Catholic, fled to England. In Germany, Protestant princes formed the Schmalkaldic League, which assailed the Catholic emperor Charles V, the bishops, and a few remaining Catholic princes. When Charles defeated the league in 1547, he proclaimed the “Interim,” which restored Catholics’ right to worship in Protestant lands. Protestants opposed the Interim, and the Protestant princes, now led by Duke Maurice of Saxony, once more raised arms against Charles and sent the surprised and bankrupt emperor fleeing to Italy where, in 1555, he agreed to the Peace of Augsburg. The settlement recognized the Evangelical (Lutheran) church and allowed the German princes—whether Catholic or Protestant—to determine the religion for their lands. The agreement omitted other groups, such as the Calvinists and Anabaptists, which would lead to conflict in the future.

Bottom of Form

 

 

A Continuing Reformation
In reaction to the Protestant challenge, the Catholic church mobilized itself for defense and renewal. The Council of Trent gave more clarity and definition to Catholic beliefs, while new religious orders campaigned to regain areas that had converted to Protestantism. Missionaries from Catholic Europe also began to travel to other parts of the world to win converts who might compensate for the millions of the faithful that were lost to the Protestant Reformation.

Catholic Renewal, pp. 574–575
Many Catholics had called for reform before Martin Luther, but the papacy had failed to respond. Under Pope Paul III (r. 1534–1549), the Catholic church finally pursued reform, a movement sometimes called the Catholic Reformation. Pope Paul III and Charles V convened the Council of Trent, which met sporadically from 1545 to 1563 and reached conclusions that would revitalize Catholicism for the following two centuries. The council reasserted clerical supremacy over the laity, required bishops to reside in their dioceses, and ordered the establishment of seminaries to train priests in each diocese. The council also reaffirmed the doctrine of transubstantiation, thus firmly rejecting the Protestant position on the Eucharist. It stipulated that all weddings take place in a church and be registered with the clergy. Finally, the council rejected the Protestants’ permitting of divorce. The council’s proclamations made permanent the divisions between the Catholics and Protestants and ended all hope for reconciliation. The Catholic Reformation also prompted the formation of new religious orders, most important the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits), who became the papacy’s most vigorous defenders. Established by a Spanish nobleman, Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556), the order was recognized by the church in 1540. Young men were attracted by Ignatius’s austerity and piety and, by the time of Ignatius’s death, Europe had more than one thousand Jesuits who established hundreds of colleges throughout Catholic Europe. In addition, Jesuit missionaries would help spread Roman Catholicism to Africans, Asians, and native Americans.

Missionary Zeal, pp. 575–577
To win new souls to replace those lost to Protestantism, and to convince Catholics and Protestants that the Catholic church enjoyed divine favor, Catholic missionaries traveled throughout the globe. Different missionaries, however, brought differing messages to indigenous peoples. To some, Catholicism offered reason and faith; to others, it was a repressive and coercive alien religion. Some missionaries converted indigenous populations by force, despite criticism. Under the influence of critics such as Bartolome de Las Casas (1474–1566), the Spanish crown tried to protect native peoples from abuse, a policy weakened by the struggles among the missionaries, royal officials, and conquistadores. After an initial period of relatively little discrimination, the Catholic church began to adopt strict rules biased by color in Spanish America. In 1555, it forbade holy orders to Indians, mestizos (mixed European-Indians), mulattoes (mixed European-Africans), Moors, and Jews. The Portuguese, however, were more willing to train Africans and Asians as missionaries. Under Portuguese protection, Jesuit missionaries preached the Gospel to elite Confucian scholars in China and to the samurai (the warrior aristocracy) in Japan. Because European missionaries admired Chinese and Japanese civilizations, they relied on sermons rather than force to win converts. The Jesuit Francis Xavier pioneered missionary work in India and Japan, paving the way for future missionary success in Asia.

Some fun CCOT Stuff

Change Continuity over Time, compare and contrast models to analyze?
 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dMH0bHeiRNg
Evolution of Dance–6 minutes
 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6kID5W9k-Zw
Dani California by the Red Hot Chili Peppers
 
Mr. Maunu

Aryan Invasion Theory

Students:
I thought I would post this wonderful discussion of the Aryan Invasion theory by Jerry Bentley and Marc Gilbert on our blog site.
Mr.  Maunu
 
 
ARYAN INVASION Theory:

Since I sent in my first chapter of a book last year to my publisher that says the same thing as Jerry Bentley just did, I must say I agree with him completely! However, there is a big however!

 

Teachers and scholars of the early Vedic Age must address several other issues:

 

First, there is no demonstrable break between the later cities of Harappan civilization near the head of the Gangetic Plain and the early Vedic Age. This not only means that there was no classic Invasion but:

 

Second, Harappan culture was not erased and its people were not all driven away or merely enslaved. Much of their culture (how much is a matter of debate) survived, as the history of near-contemporary conflict between Akkadians and Sumerians suggest. (In that case Sumerians recovered their power, but retained the name Akkadian!). Which leads to:

 

Third:  Early Vedic Conflict with whom? Compare the Bible’s assertion of the burning of Jericho and its admonition to kill all the Cannanites, especially Moabites (and most explicitly, the execution of those who have sexual intercourse with them) to Vedic accounts of warfare: the city of Jericho was never burnt, yet the Bible tells us so, and the Vedas tell us of the destruction of walls, but we have yet to find evidence of that in the Indus.  Worse, Jesse, King David’s father, is the son of a Moabite woman, so apparently Moabites and Israelites could marry!

 

Hindutva writers say the Vedas are about conflict within Aryan society over who was truly Aryan (noble), not between migrant Indo-European speakers and indigenous people. Was that struggle perhaps owed to uneven rates of cultural change among groups? One could reasonably argue that it occurred between waves of migrants (Hindutva scholars, of course, do not so argue). A similar debate once occurred over whether later Polynesian migrants to Hawaii made the early ones kapu or tapu. Those late comers who went up the Manoa Valley (for example) to see them or otherwise encountered the first wave were to be executed.

 

Sacred oral history is fine, but hotly debated as to accuracy.  Hindutva writers may be wrong about everything, but scholars now face the challenge of replacing the invasion theory with something backed by strong evidence or by default it could pass to Hindutva propagandists whose evidence is, to be polite, questionable, as Jerry, less politely, points out (and cites the scholarship holding that this is the case!)

 

Early and later Vedic India may thus not be easily reducible at the moment, but, as the Chinese symbol for trouble is also the symbol for opportunity (or so it is said), world historians can use this material to demonstrate before their students the humility so lacking in both Aryan Invasion and Hindutva writing. Moreover, the Aryan Invasion theory and the Hindutva riposte makes a great lesson in how the past is politicized.  And that debate is easily Googled! As to what that history may have been, we are not so sure. In the West, Aryan Invasion theory was gospel and central to racist European imperialist ideology (though its progenitor, F. Max Muller, may have other goals). It took a century of sound archeology to kill it. May the resolution of what may come to replace it come sooner and be more benign!

 

Om, Shanti, Om!

 

Marc

 

 Jerry’ also draws attention to the Bantu migration. There is much debate over whether Bantu migration can be attributed to human agency as is attributed to the Aryan migration.  Mande peoples etc from West Africa may not have physically transferred their language–it spread due to its efficiency. Any advice from Africanists the list on this?

 

—–Original Message—–
From: Jerry Bentley [mailto:jbentley@hawaii.edu]
Sent: Saturday, November 03, 2007 12:46 PM
To: AP World History
Subject: Re: [ap-world] Aryan Invasion of India

 

From: Jerry H. Bentley

         University of Hawaii

          jbentley@hawaii.edu

 

You might say that two quite different and separate debates have gotten mingled.

 

The older of the two debates deals with the question of invasion. At one point, some scholars believed that warlike Aryans invaded India, killed Harappan society, and built a new order on its grave. One prominent archaeologist found a group of unburied skeletons in a Harappan building and luridly speculated about their violent deaths at the hands of rude invaders. Gradually, though, a much less dramatic view developed. As Jonathan Burack mentioned, the prevailing view now is that Harappan society was already in deep decline when Indo-European speakers arrived, and furthermore, there was no ‘invasion’ in any meaningful sense of the term. There were waves of migrations, and a great deal of violence undoubtedly resulted from conflicts between older populations and new arrivals. But we are talking about migratory processes lasting centuries, like the Bantu or Germanic migrations, rather than a planned invasion.

 

A more recent debate arises from Hindu nationalist ideology that conflicts with serious scholarship. Generally speaking, and recognizing that there will be differences from one position to another, Hindutva exponents hold there was no invasion or migration at all, rather that Hindus descend from the earliest Indian populations of the Indus River valley (aka Harappan) society. Their reasoning is sloppy, and on more than a few occasions they have irresponsibly and quite transparently manufactured or distorted evidence in arguing their cases. Their position reflects propaganda or mythology rather than respectable history. It is about as persuasive as Holocaust denial. Nevertheless, their arguments play well among some Hindu nationalists in India. They are also popular within some diaspora communities in which there is a strong sense of Hindu identity.

 

Don’t just take my word for this. Consult the following works for critiques of Hindutva views:

 

Michael Witzel and Steve Farmer, ‘Horseplay in Harappa: The Indus Valley Decipherment Hoax,’ Frontline: India’s National Magazine, 13 October 2000, pp. 4-14 (accessible on the internet).

 

Romila Thapar, ‘Hindutva and History,’ Frontline: India’s National Magazine, 13 October 2000, pp. 15-16 (accessible on the internet).

 

Sumit Sarkar, Beyond Nationalist Frames: Postmodernism, Hindu Fundamentalism, History (Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2002).

 

Kristen M. Romey, ‘Flashpoint Ayodhya,’ Archaeology 57 (July/August 2004): 48-55.

 

William Dalrymple, ‘India: The War over History,’ New York Review of Books 52:6 (7 April 2005): 62-65.

 

My own view: There was no ‘Aryan invasion’ of India, but there certainly were waves of migrations into India by Indo-European speakers who called themselves Aryans. Harappan society was already in decline when Indo-European speakers made their way into India, so the migrants did not topple or kill off the earlier society, but there was undoubtedly plenty of violence as peoples from different communities clashed over lands and resources.

 

Cheers,

 

Jerry B.

 

Jerry H. Bentley

Department of History

University of Hawaii

2530 Dole Street

Honolulu, HI  96822

 

Telephone: (808) 956-8505

Fax: (808) 956-9600

 

 

====

Course related website:

http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/world

 

====Course related website: http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/world

AP World test questions

AP World students:

You can check out these sites.  Some of the Tests in the first website (hhhknights) will
not open, but there are great review pdfs and the 2nd site has multiple choice, etc.
to practice.
Mr. M

Bentley/Stearns Practice Tests:

http://hhhknights.com/apwh/apwh.htm

 

Bulliet Practice Tests:

http://college.hmco.com/history/world/bulliet/earth_peoples/3e/students/index.html

 

 

http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/world

Biologists on the Verge…

http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/09/biologists-on-t.html?npu=1&mbid=yhp 

This was supplied to us by Brian P. It is a very iteresting article, that could change all of our lives, please take a look at it.

Making of the West Outlines

http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/hunt/default.asp?uid=0&rau=0 Here is the link to the ch. 13 summary, you may need to create a username for it, it takes 20 seconds to do. Lets all the Brian P for this outstanding link he has provided for us.

PowerPoints/Outlines

Here are th Powerpoints/outlines for the Princeton Review AP World History book. Review these to do well on the test(s). These are ment to help you better understand the book, not to be used as a supplement for the book. Here is the link…

 

http://web.bryzo.com/firstuser/